TEN-ARMED CUTTLEFISH OR SQUID IN THE ACT OF CAPTURING A FISH 118

GREENLAND WHALE 118

MINUTE TRANSPARENT EARLY STAGE OF A SEA-CUCUMBER 119

AN INTRICATE COLONY OF OPEN-SEA ANIMALS (_Physophora Hydrostatica_) RELATED TO THE PORTUGUESE MAN-OF-WAR 119 Photo: British Museum (Natural History).

A SCENE IN THE GREAT DEPTHS 119

SEA-HORSE IN SARGASSO WEED 120

LARGE MARINE LAMPREYS (_Petromyzon Marinus_) 120

THE DEEP-SEA FISH _Chiasmodon Niger_ 120

DEEP-SEA FISHES 120

FLINTY SKELETON OF VENUS’ FLOWER BASKET (_Euplectella_), A JAPANESE DEEP-SEA SPONGE 121

EGG DEPOSITORY OF _Semotilus Atromaculatus_ 121

THE BITTERLING (_Rhodeus Amarus_) 124

WOOLLY OPOSSUM CARRYING HER FAMILY 124 Photo: W. S. Berridge.

SURINAM TOAD (_Pipa Americana_) WITH YOUNG ONES HATCHING OUT OF LITTLE POCKETS ON HER BACK 125

STORM PETREL OR MOTHER CAREY’S CHICKEN (_Procellaria Pelagica_) 125

ALBATROSS: A CHARACTERISTIC PELAGIC BIRD OF THE SOUTHERN SEA 128

THE PRAYING MANTIS (_Mantis Religiosa_) 138

PROTECTIVE COLORATION: A WINTER SCENE IN NORTH SCANDINAVIA 138

THE VARIABLE MONITOR (_Varanus_) 139 Photo: A. A. White.

BANDED KRAIT: A VERY POISONOUS SNAKE WITH ALTERNATING YELLOW AND DARK BANDS 140 Photo: W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S.

THE WARTY CHAMELEON 140 Photos: W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S.

SEASONAL COLOUR-CHANGE: SUMMER SCENE IN NORTH SCANDINAVIA 141

PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCE 142 Photo: J. J. Ward, F.E.S.

WHEN ONLY A FEW DAYS OLD, YOUNG BITTERN BEGIN TO STRIKE THE SAME ATTITUDE AS THEIR PARENTS, THRUSTING THEIR BILLS UPWARDS AND DRAWING THEIR BODIES UP SO THAT THEY RESEMBLE A BUNCH OF REEDS 143

PROTECTIVE COLORATION OR CAMOUFLAGING, GIVING ANIMALS A GARMENT OF INVISIBILITY (_Coloured Illustration_) 144

ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF PROTECTIVE COLORATION (_Coloured Illustration_) 144

DEAD-LEAF BUTTERFLY (_Kallima Inachis_) FROM INDIA 146

PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCE BETWEEN A SMALL SPIDER (_to the left_) AND AN ANT (_to the right_) 146

THE WASP BEETLE, WHICH, WHEN MOVING AMONGST THE BRANCHES, GIVES A WASP-LIKE IMPRESSION 147 Photo: J. J. Ward, F.E.S.

HERMIT-CRAB WITH PARTNER SEA-ANEMONES 147

CUCKOO-SPIT 147 Photo: G. P. Duffus.

CHIMPANZEE, SITTING 156 Photo: New York Zoological Park.

CHIMPANZEE, ILLUSTRATING WALKING POWERS 156 Photo: New York Zoological Park.

SURFACE VIEW OF THE BRAINS OF MAN AND CHIMPANZEE 157

SIDE-VIEW OF CHIMPANZEE’S HEAD 157 Photo: New York Zoological Park.

PROFILE VIEW OF HEAD OF PITHECANTHROPUS, THE JAVA APE-MAN, RECONSTRUCTED FROM THE SKULL-CAP 157 After a model by J. H. McGregor.

THE FLIPPER OF A WHALE AND THE HAND OF A MAN 157

THE GORILLA, INHABITING THE FOREST TRACT OF THE GABOON IN AFRICA (_Coloured Illustration_) 158

“DARWIN’S POINT” ON HUMAN EAR 160

PROFESSOR SIR ARTHUR KEITH, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 161 Photo: J. Russell & Sons.

SKELETONS OF THE GIBBON, ORANG, CHIMPANZEE, GORILLA, MAN 161 After T. H. Huxley (by permission of Messrs. Macmillan).

SIDE-VIEW OF SKULL OF MAN AND GORILLA 164

THE SKULL AND BRAIN-CASE OF PITHECANTHROPUS, THE JAVA APE-MAN, AS RESTORED BY J. H. MCGREGOR FROM THE SCANTY REMAINS 164

SUGGESTED GENEALOGICAL TREE OF MAN AND ANTHROPOID APES 165

THE GIBBON IS LOWER THAN THE OTHER APES AS REGARDS ITS SKULL AND DENTITION, BUT IT IS HIGHLY SPECIALIZED IN THE ADAPTATION OF ITS LIMBS TO ARBOREAL LIFE 166 Photo: New York Zoological Park.

THE ORANG HAS A HIGH ROUNDED SKULL AND A LONG FACE 166 Photo: New York Zoological Park.

COMPARISONS OF THE SKELETONS OF HORSE AND MAN 167 Photo: British Museum (Natural History).

A RECONSTRUCTION OF THE JAVA MAN (_Coloured Illustration_) 168

PROFILE VIEW OF THE HEAD OF PITHECANTHROPUS, THE JAVA APE-MAN–AN EARLY OFFSHOOT FROM THE MAIN LINE OF MAN’S ASCENT 170 After a model by J. H. McGregor.

PILTDOWN SKULL 170 From the reconstruction by J. H. McGregor.

SAND-PIT AT MAUER, NEAR HEIDELBERG: DISCOVERY SITE OF THE JAW OF HEIDELBERG MAN 171 Reproduced by permission from Osborn’s _Men of the Old Stone Age_.

PAINTINGS ON THE ROOF OF THE ALTAMIRA CAVE IN NORTHERN SPAIN, SHOWING A BISON AND A GALLOPING BOAR (_Coloured Illustration_) 172

PILTDOWN MAN, PRECEDING NEANDERTHAL MAN, PERHAPS 100,000 TO 150,000 YEARS AGO 174 After the restoration modelled by J. H. McGregor.

THE NEANDERTHAL MAN OF LA CHAPELLE-AUX-SAINTS 175 After the restoration modelled by J. H. McGregor.

RESTORATION BY A. FORESTIER OF THE RHODESIAN MAN WHOSE SKULL WAS DISCOVERED IN 1921 176-177

SIDE VIEW OF A PREHISTORIC HUMAN SKULL DISCOVERED IN 1921 IN BROKEN HILL CAVE, NORTHERN RHODESIA 178 Photo: British Museum (Natural History).

A CROMAGNON MAN OR CROMAGNARD, REPRESENTATIVE OF A STRONG ARTISTIC RACE LIVING IN THE SOUTH OF FRANCE IN THE UPPER PLEISTOCENE, PERHAPS 25,000 YEARS AGO 178 After the restoration modelled by J. H. McGregor.

PHOTOGRAPH SHOWING A NARROW PASSAGE IN THE CAVERN OF FONT-DE-GAUME ON THE BEUNE 179 Reproduced by permission from Osborn’s _Men of the Old Stone Age_.

A MAMMOTH DRAWN ON THE WALL OF THE FONT-DE-GAUME CAVERN 179

A GRAZING BISON, DELICATELY AND CAREFULLY DRAWN, ENGRAVED ON A WALL OF THE ALTAMIRA CAVE, NORTHERN SPAIN 179

PHOTOGRAPH OF A MEDIAN SECTION THROUGH THE SHELL OF THE PEARLY NAUTILUS 186

PHOTOGRAPH OF THE ENTIRE SHELL OF THE PEARLY NAUTILUS 186

NAUTILUS 186

SHOEBILL 187 Photo: W. S. Berridge.

THE WALKING-FISH OR MUD-SKIPPER (_Periophthalmus_), COMMON AT THE MOUTHS OF RIVERS IN TROPICAL AFRICA, ASIA, AND NORTH-WEST AUSTRALIA 190

THE AUSTRALIAN MORE-PORK OR PODARGUS 190 Photo: _The Times_.

PELICAN’S BILL, ADAPTED FOR CATCHING AND STORING FISHES 191

SPOONBILL’S BILL, ADAPTED FOR SIFTING THE MUD AND CATCHING THE SMALL ANIMALS, E.G. FISHES, CRUSTACEANS, INSECT LARVÆ, WHICH LIVE THERE 191

AVOCET’S BILL, ADAPTED FOR A CURIOUS SIDEWAYS SCOOPING IN THE SHORE-POOLS AND CATCHING SMALL ANIMALS 191

HORNBILL’S BILL, ADAPTED FOR EXCAVATING A NEST IN A TREE, AND ALSO FOR SEIZING AND BREAKING DIVERSE FORMS OF FOOD, FROM MAMMALS TO TORTOISES, FROM ROOTS TO FRUITS 191

FALCON’S BILL, ADAPTED FOR SEIZING, KILLING, AND TEARING SMALL MAMMALS AND BIRDS 191

PUFFIN’S BILL, ADAPTED FOR CATCHING SMALL FISHES NEAR THE SURFACE OF THE SEA, AND FOR HOLDING THEM WHEN CAUGHT AND CARRYING THEM TO THE NEST 191

LIFE-HISTORY OF A FROG 192

HIND-LEG OF WHIRLIGIG BEETLE WHICH HAS BECOME BEAUTIFULLY MODIFIED FOR AQUATIC LOCOMOTION 192 Photo: J. J. Ward, F.E.S.

THE BIG ROBBER-CRAB (_Birgus Latro_), THAT CLIMBS THE COCONUT PALM AND BREAKS OFF THE NUTS 193

EARLY LIFE-HISTORY OF THE SALMON 196

THE SALMON LEAPING AT THE FALL IS A MOST FASCINATING SPECTACLE 197

DIAGRAM OF THE LIFE-HISTORY OF THE COMMON EEL (_Anguilla Vulgaris_) 200

CASSOWARY 201 Photo: Gambier Bolton.

THE KIWI, ANOTHER FLIGHTLESS BIRD, OF REMARKABLE APPEARANCE, HABITS, AND STRUCTURE 201 Photo: Gambier Bolton.

THE AUSTRALIAN FRILLED LIZARD, WHICH IS AT PRESENT TRYING TO BECOME A BIPED 202

A CARPET OF GOSSAMER 202

THE WATER SPIDER 203

JACKDAW BALANCING ON A GATEPOST 208 Photo: O. J. Wilkinson.

TWO OPOSSUMS FEIGNING DEATH 208 From Ingersoll’s _The Wit of the Wild_.

MALE OF THREE-SPINED STICKLEBACK, MAKING A NEST OF WATER-WEED, GLUED TOGETHER BY VISCID THREADS SECRETED FROM THE KIDNEYS AT THE BREEDING SEASON 209

A FEMALE STICKLEBACK ENTERS THE NEST WHICH THE MALE HAS MADE, LAYS THE EGGS INSIDE, AND THEN DEPARTS 209

HOMING PIGEON 212 Photo: Imperial War Museum.

CARRIER PIGEON 212 Photo: Imperial War Museum.

YELLOW-CROWNED PENGUIN 213 Photo: James’s Press Agency.

PENGUINS ARE “A PECULIAR PEOPLE” 213 Photo: Cagcombe & Co.

HARPY-EAGLE 216 Photo: W. S. Berridge.

THE DINGO OR WILD DOG OF AUSTRALIA, PERHAPS AN INDIGENOUS WILD SPECIES, PERHAPS A DOMESTICATED DOG THAT HAS GONE WILD OR FERAL 216 Photo: W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S.

WOODPECKER HAMMERING AT A COTTON-REEL, ATTACHED TO A TREE 217

THE BEAVER 220

THE THRUSH AT ITS ANVIL 221 Photo: F. R. Hinkins & Son.

ALSATIAN WOLF-DOG 226 Photo: Lafayette.

THE POLAR BEAR OF THE FAR NORTH 227 Photo: W. S. Berridge.

AN ALLIGATOR “YAWNING” IN EXPECTATION OF FOOD 227 From the Smithsonian Report, 1914.

BABY ORANG 232 Photo: W. P. Dando.

ORANG-UTAN 232 Photo: Gambier Bolton.

CHIMPANZEE 233 Photo: James’s Press Agency.

BABY ORANG-UTAN 233 Photo: James’s Press Agency.

ORANG-UTAN 233 Photo: James’s Press Agency.

BABY CHIMPANZEES 233 Photo: James’s Press Agency.

CHIMPANZEE 238 Photo: W. P. Dando.

YOUNG CHEETAHS, OR HUNTING LEOPARDS 238 Photo: W. S. Berridge.

COMMON OTTER 239 Photo: C. Reid.

SIR ERNEST RUTHERFORD 246 Photo: Elliott & Fry.

J. CLERK-MAXWELL 246 Photo: Rischgitz Collection.

SIR WILLIAM CROOKES 247 Photo: Ernest H. Mills.

PROFESSOR SIR W. H. BRAGG 247 Photo: Photo Press.

COMPARATIVE SIZES OF MOLECULES 250

INCONCEIVABLE NUMBERS AND INCONCEIVABLY SMALL PARTICLES 250

WHAT IS A MILLION? 250

THE BROWNIAN MOVEMENT 251

A SOAP BUBBLE (_Coloured Illustration_) 252 Reproduced from _The Forces of Nature_ (Messrs. Macmillan).

DETECTING A SMALL QUANTITY OF MATTER 254 From _Scientific Ideas of To-day_.

THIS X-RAY PHOTOGRAPH IS THAT OF A HAND OF A SOLDIER WOUNDED IN THE GREAT WAR 254 Reproduced by permission of X-Rays Ltd.

AN X-RAY PHOTOGRAPH OF A GOLF BALL, REVEALING AN IMPERFECT CORE 254 Photo: National Physical Laboratory.

A WONDERFUL X-RAY PHOTOGRAPH 255 Reproduced by permission of X-Rays Ltd.

ELECTRIC DISCHARGE IN A VACUUM TUBE 258

THE RELATIVE SIZES OF ATOMS AND ELECTRONS 258

ELECTRONS STREAMING FROM THE SUN TO THE EARTH 259

PROFESSOR SIR J. J. THOMSON 262

ELECTRONS PRODUCED BY PASSAGE OF X-RAYS THROUGH AIR 262 From the Smithsonian Report, 1915.

MAGNETIC DEFLECTION OF RADIUM RAYS 263

PROFESSOR R. A. MILLIKAN’S APPARATUS FOR COUNTING ELECTRONS 263 Reproduced by permission of _Scientific American_.

MAKING THE INVISIBLE VISIBLE 266

THE THEORY OF ELECTRONS 267

ARRANGEMENTS OF ATOMS IN A DIAMOND 267

DISINTEGRATION OF ATOMS 270

SILK TASSEL ELECTRIFIED 270 Reproduced by permission from _The Interpretation of Radium_ (John Murray).

SILK TASSEL DISCHARGED BY THE RAYS FROM RADIUM 270

A HUGE ELECTRIC SPARK 271

ELECTRICAL ATTRACTION BETWEEN COMMON OBJECTS 271 From _Scientific Ideas of To-day_.

AN ELECTRIC SPARK 274 Photo: Leadbeater.

AN ETHER DISTURBANCE AROUND AN ELECTRON CURRENT 275 From _Scientific Ideas of To-day_.

LIGHTNING 278 Photo: H. J. Shepstone.

LIGHT WAVES 279

THE MAGNETIC CIRCUIT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT 279

THE MAGNET 279

ROTATING DISC OF SIR ISAAC NEWTON FOR MIXING COLOURS (_Coloured Illustration_) 280

WAVE SHAPES 282

THE POWER OF A MAGNET 282

THE SPEED OF LIGHT 283 Photo: The Locomotive Publishing Co., Ltd.

ROTATING DISC OF SIR ISAAC NEWTON FOR MIXING COLOURS 283

NIAGARA FALLS 286

TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY 287 Photo: Stephen Cribb.

“BOILING” A KETTLE ON ICE 287 Photo: Underwood & Underwood.

THE CAUSE OF TIDES 290

THE AEGIR ON THE TRENT 290 Photo: G. Brocklehurst.

A BIG SPRING TIDE, THE AEGIR ON THE TRENT 291 Photo: G. Brocklehurst.

The Outline of Science

INTRODUCTION

There is abundant evidence of a widened and deepened interest in modernscience. How could it be otherwise when we think of the magnitude andthe eventfulness of recent advances?

But the interest of the general public would be even greater than it isif the makers of new knowledge were more willing to expound theirdiscoveries in ways that could be “understanded of the people.” No oneobjects very much to technicalities in a game or on board a yacht, andthey are clearly necessary for terse and precise scientific description.It is certain, however, that they can be reduced to a minimum withoutsacrificing accuracy, when the object in view is to explain “the gist ofthe matter.” So this OUTLINE OF SCIENCE is meant for the general reader,who lacks both time and opportunity for special study, and yet wouldtake an intelligent interest in the progress of science which is makingthe world always new.

The story of the triumphs of modern science is one of which Man may wellbe proud. Science reads the secret of the distant star and anatomisesthe atom; foretells the date of the comet’s return and predicts thekinds of chickens that will hatch from a dozen eggs; discovers the lawsof the wind that bloweth where it listeth and reduces to order thedisorder of disease. Science is always setting forth on Columbusvoyages, discovering new worlds and conquering them by understanding.For Knowledge means Foresight and Foresight means Power.

The idea of Evolution has influenced all the sciences, forcing us tothink of _everything_ as with a history behind it, for we have travelledfar since Darwin’s day. The solar system, the earth, the mountainranges, and the great deeps, the rocks and crystals, the plants andanimals, man himself and his social institutions–all must be seen asthe outcome of a long process of Becoming. There are some eighty-oddchemical elements on the earth to-day, and it is now much more than asuggestion that these are the outcome of an inorganic evolution, elementgiving rise to element, going back and back to some primeval stuff, fromwhich they were all originally derived, infinitely long ago. No idea hasbeen so powerful a tool in the fashioning of New Knowledge as thissimple but profound idea of Evolution, that the present is the child ofthe past and the parent of the future. And with the picture of acontinuity of evolution from nebula to social systems comes a promise ofan increasing control–a promise that Man will become not only a moreaccurate student, but a more complete master of his world.

It is characteristic of modern science that the whole world is seen tobe more vital than before. Everywhere there has been a passage from thestatic to the dynamic. Thus the new revelations of the constitution ofmatter, which we owe to the discoveries of men like Professor Sir J. J.Thomson, Professor Sir Ernest Rutherford, and Professor Frederick Soddy,have shown the very dust to have a complexity and an activity heretoforeunimagined. Such phrases as “dead” matter and “inert” matter have goneby the board.

The new theory of the atom amounts almost to a new conception of theuniverse. It bids fair to reveal to us many of nature’s hidden secrets.

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